Therapists in New York, NY

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Photo of Michelle Kennedy, LCSW, Clinical Social Work/Therapist
Michelle Kennedy
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW
Verified Verified
1 Endorsed
New York, NY 10024
I provide insight oriented psychotherapy and behavioral interventions such as CBT and DBT to help individuals, teens, and children meet their highest potential and free themselves from emotional disregulation. A primary focus is relief from depression and anxiety while increasing self-esteem and pleasure along with stability in personal relationships. I empower my patients to make the needed changes in their lives while staying motivated and provide the safe space and emotionally healing environment essential for growth.
I provide insight oriented psychotherapy and behavioral interventions such as CBT and DBT to help individuals, teens, and children meet their highest potential and free themselves from emotional disregulation. A primary focus is relief from depression and anxiety while increasing self-esteem and pleasure along with stability in personal relationships. I empower my patients to make the needed changes in their lives while staying motivated and provide the safe space and emotionally healing environment essential for growth.
(646) 362-5140 View (646) 362-5140
Photo of Rosemarie Kurtz, PhD, Psychologist
Rosemarie Kurtz
Psychologist, PhD
Verified Verified
New York, NY 10013
Dr. Rosemarie Kurtz is a neuropsychologist specializing in comprehensive assessments for clients with vulnerabilities impacting their functioning at school, home, work, and/or social settings. After earning her doctorate at Columbia University, she completed a fellowship at Northwell Health. In so, she has experience working with children, young adults, and their families at multiple academic medical centers, schools, and community clinics. She has extensive experience assessing ADHD, autism, learning differences, language disorders, intellectual challenges, and the emotional and behavioral difficulties that often accompany these.
Dr. Rosemarie Kurtz is a neuropsychologist specializing in comprehensive assessments for clients with vulnerabilities impacting their functioning at school, home, work, and/or social settings. After earning her doctorate at Columbia University, she completed a fellowship at Northwell Health. In so, she has experience working with children, young adults, and their families at multiple academic medical centers, schools, and community clinics. She has extensive experience assessing ADHD, autism, learning differences, language disorders, intellectual challenges, and the emotional and behavioral difficulties that often accompany these.
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Photo of Eve Markowitz Preston, PhD, Psychologist
Eve Markowitz Preston
Psychologist, PhD
Verified Verified
New York, NY 10065
I am a cognitive psychologist -- a practical person who will help you understand: What are your goals, and what is blocking you from reaching them? We'll work together to get a handle on how your thoughts may be impeding your progress, and, more importantly, how to adjust your thoughts to increase your chances of success.
I am a cognitive psychologist -- a practical person who will help you understand: What are your goals, and what is blocking you from reaching them? We'll work together to get a handle on how your thoughts may be impeding your progress, and, more importantly, how to adjust your thoughts to increase your chances of success.
(646) 759-9479 View (646) 759-9479
Photo of Jeff Grant, JD, MDiv, Pastoral Counselor
Jeff Grant
Pastoral Counselor, JD, MDiv
Verified Verified
New York, NY 10036
I work with people prosecuted for white collar crimes, and their families, who want to come out of isolation and join a supportive community that will help them navigate their journeys through the criminal justice system – to new ethical, productive, joyful lives on the other side of their issues. I am also an attorney-at-law and founded the law firm of GrantLaw, PLLC in NYC. We provide private general counsel services to people and families facing white collar criminal justice issues, legal crisis management, strategy and team building, services to family-owned/closely-held businesses, and special situation and pro bono clients.
I work with people prosecuted for white collar crimes, and their families, who want to come out of isolation and join a supportive community that will help them navigate their journeys through the criminal justice system – to new ethical, productive, joyful lives on the other side of their issues. I am also an attorney-at-law and founded the law firm of GrantLaw, PLLC in NYC. We provide private general counsel services to people and families facing white collar criminal justice issues, legal crisis management, strategy and team building, services to family-owned/closely-held businesses, and special situation and pro bono clients.
(646) 495-9872 View (646) 495-9872
Photo of Lisa Penberthy, LCSW, Clinical Social Work/Therapist
Lisa Penberthy
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW
Verified Verified
1 Endorsed
New York, NY 10001  (Online Only)
Our team of therapists & psychiatrists are leading minds in mental health We understand your unique needs and are dedicated to helping you find solutions to life’s challenges. We use the most up to date, scientifically proven treatments. When patients have the courage to place faith in us, we have a responsibility to justify their confidence.
Our team of therapists & psychiatrists are leading minds in mental health We understand your unique needs and are dedicated to helping you find solutions to life’s challenges. We use the most up to date, scientifically proven treatments. When patients have the courage to place faith in us, we have a responsibility to justify their confidence.
(914) 415-5807 View (914) 415-5807
Photo of Maria Astorga, LMHC, Counselor
Maria Astorga
Counselor, LMHC
Verified Verified
1 Endorsed
New York, NY 10001
Bilingual therapist who works with clients in English and Spanish and a strong understanding of multicultural identity. She has a humanistic approach based on experiential, person-centered and systems theory but is mainly focused in the attachment theory. She believes change is possible when creating a safe environment where the individual feels trusted and understood.
Bilingual therapist who works with clients in English and Spanish and a strong understanding of multicultural identity. She has a humanistic approach based on experiential, person-centered and systems theory but is mainly focused in the attachment theory. She believes change is possible when creating a safe environment where the individual feels trusted and understood.
(646) 807-4141 View (646) 807-4141
Photo of David 'Kelly' Gwin - David Kelly Gwin, Licensed Psychotherapist, MA, LMHC, MFT, Counselor
David Kelly Gwin, Licensed Psychotherapist
Counselor, MA, LMHC, MFT
Verified Verified
1 Endorsed
New York, NY 10016
I am an interactive psychotherapist with advanced experience in Couples Therapy, Cognitive Therapy and Modern Psychodynamic Therapy. I help individuals and couples suffering from symptoms of depression, anxiety or problems in their relationships. Often clients come to me feeling stuck or confused about relationships and careers that keep them from engaging more fully in life. I help them to understand the problems, remove the obstacles, and live a life more in tune with their true nature. Having grown up in a family of therapists and worked through many of my own similar issues, I know personally and professionally the vast rewards of good therapy.
I am an interactive psychotherapist with advanced experience in Couples Therapy, Cognitive Therapy and Modern Psychodynamic Therapy. I help individuals and couples suffering from symptoms of depression, anxiety or problems in their relationships. Often clients come to me feeling stuck or confused about relationships and careers that keep them from engaging more fully in life. I help them to understand the problems, remove the obstacles, and live a life more in tune with their true nature. Having grown up in a family of therapists and worked through many of my own similar issues, I know personally and professionally the vast rewards of good therapy.
(646) 351-1637 View (646) 351-1637
Photo of Liz Gaeta, LMHC, NCC, Counselor
Liz Gaeta
Counselor, LMHC, NCC
Verified Verified
New York, NY 10011
Waitlist for new clients
My goal as a therapist is to create a comfortable, nonjudgmental environment that allows you to identify and explore whatever thoughts, feelings, or concerns you find yourself facing. My style is collaborative, warm, humorous, and interactive, which allows me to quickly establish a supportive and strong relationship with clients. Together we will identify goals that focus on your wellbeing, seek to create the changes you want, and help you to live a happier, more balanced life.
My goal as a therapist is to create a comfortable, nonjudgmental environment that allows you to identify and explore whatever thoughts, feelings, or concerns you find yourself facing. My style is collaborative, warm, humorous, and interactive, which allows me to quickly establish a supportive and strong relationship with clients. Together we will identify goals that focus on your wellbeing, seek to create the changes you want, and help you to live a happier, more balanced life.
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Photo of John Vincent O'Leary, PhD, Psychologist
John Vincent O'Leary
Psychologist, PhD
Verified Verified
New York, NY 10023
As a psychologist with psychoanalytic training, I have years of experience in treating anxiety and depression, especially serious depression. I believe that many problems emanate from faulty interpersonal relations and/or a lifetime of trauma. I can help you spot self sabotaging patterns. I provide a therapy that is accessible, affordable, and relies on both the examination of troublesome feelings as well as defective thinking patterns. Before anything else, I hope to build a trusting relationship.
As a psychologist with psychoanalytic training, I have years of experience in treating anxiety and depression, especially serious depression. I believe that many problems emanate from faulty interpersonal relations and/or a lifetime of trauma. I can help you spot self sabotaging patterns. I provide a therapy that is accessible, affordable, and relies on both the examination of troublesome feelings as well as defective thinking patterns. Before anything else, I hope to build a trusting relationship.
(646) 480-7349 View (646) 480-7349
Photo of Karen L. Stout, PhD, Psychologist
Karen L. Stout
Psychologist, PhD
Verified Verified
New York, NY 10014
I am a clinical psychologist who values the importance of establishing a comfortable, nonjudgmental, and meaningful therapeutic experience that is right for you. My focus is on helping individuals gain increased self-awareness with the goal of reducing distressing feelings, increasing self-esteem, improving ways of relating, undoing maladaptive patterns of behavior or thinking, or improving coping skills. I also view therapy as a place to problem solve and think through decisions and to support desired changes and goals.
I am a clinical psychologist who values the importance of establishing a comfortable, nonjudgmental, and meaningful therapeutic experience that is right for you. My focus is on helping individuals gain increased self-awareness with the goal of reducing distressing feelings, increasing self-esteem, improving ways of relating, undoing maladaptive patterns of behavior or thinking, or improving coping skills. I also view therapy as a place to problem solve and think through decisions and to support desired changes and goals.
(917) 740-6937 View (917) 740-6937
Photo of Jeffrey R Paige, LCSW, Clinical Social Work/Therapist
Jeffrey R Paige
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW
Verified Verified
New York, NY 10011
Some of our problems may seem evident to us, easy to think and talk about. Others may have remained stubbornly elusive, sometimes for years, sometimes for as long as we can remember. Overcoming these problems can be exceedingly difficult. Psychotherapy proceeds on the understanding that insight into these problems can be developed in dialogue with another. Psychotherapists are essentially attuned, nonjudgmental, basically optimistic and trustworthy consultants.
Some of our problems may seem evident to us, easy to think and talk about. Others may have remained stubbornly elusive, sometimes for years, sometimes for as long as we can remember. Overcoming these problems can be exceedingly difficult. Psychotherapy proceeds on the understanding that insight into these problems can be developed in dialogue with another. Psychotherapists are essentially attuned, nonjudgmental, basically optimistic and trustworthy consultants.
(646) 783-0227 View (646) 783-0227
Photo of Jamie Leone, LCSW, Clinical Social Work/Therapist
Jamie Leone
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW
Verified Verified
New York, NY 10024
Encountering struggles in our lives is a universal part of our humanity. Sometimes we feel overwhelmed and alone, whether going through a painful breakup, dealing with grief from a tragic loss, coping with the pressures of career or chronic illness, or dealing with family and relationship situations. Sometimes we just need someone to talk to, who is impartial, can listen, and who can help us somehow make sense of it all. Therapy can act as a bridge of compassion and hope, to get us through to the other side to a greater understanding of our authentic selves and to help us reach the potential to live our best lives.
Encountering struggles in our lives is a universal part of our humanity. Sometimes we feel overwhelmed and alone, whether going through a painful breakup, dealing with grief from a tragic loss, coping with the pressures of career or chronic illness, or dealing with family and relationship situations. Sometimes we just need someone to talk to, who is impartial, can listen, and who can help us somehow make sense of it all. Therapy can act as a bridge of compassion and hope, to get us through to the other side to a greater understanding of our authentic selves and to help us reach the potential to live our best lives.
(646) 760-7248 View (646) 760-7248
Photo of Jeannine Crouse, LCSW, Clinical Social Work/Therapist
Jeannine Crouse
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW
Verified Verified
New York, NY 10019
Not accepting new clients
I am a highly-experienced psychotherapist working with adult and older adolescent individuals, couples, and groups. I have extensive training & certifications in treating trauma, (EMDRIA Approved Consultant, Parnell Institute Approved Consultant for A-F EMDR, Somatic Experiencing Practitioner & Training Assistant, Comprehensive Resource Model), depression/anxiety, panic disorders and grieving, amongst others. I incorporate meditation & mindfulness practices into work with my patients when desired. I also provide individual & group consultant for trauma practitioners.
I am a highly-experienced psychotherapist working with adult and older adolescent individuals, couples, and groups. I have extensive training & certifications in treating trauma, (EMDRIA Approved Consultant, Parnell Institute Approved Consultant for A-F EMDR, Somatic Experiencing Practitioner & Training Assistant, Comprehensive Resource Model), depression/anxiety, panic disorders and grieving, amongst others. I incorporate meditation & mindfulness practices into work with my patients when desired. I also provide individual & group consultant for trauma practitioners.
(646) 600-9131 View (646) 600-9131
Photo of Nicole Evry, LCSW, Clinical Social Work/Therapist
Nicole Evry
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW
Verified Verified
7 Endorsed
New York, NY 10001
I focus on adult clients struggling with eating disorders, body image issues and other addictive behaviors. I utilize a psychodynamic and solution-focused approach. In addition to eating disorders, I work with all ages around relationship and commitment issues, intimacy, interpersonal conflict, anxiety, and depression. I am eager to participate in your personal transformation at the pace that feels right for you. I am continuously working to be a white ally to BIPOC as an on-going process in awareness. I have in person availability and if you prefer meeting remote, I am able to provide HIPAA compliant and confidential teletherapy.
I focus on adult clients struggling with eating disorders, body image issues and other addictive behaviors. I utilize a psychodynamic and solution-focused approach. In addition to eating disorders, I work with all ages around relationship and commitment issues, intimacy, interpersonal conflict, anxiety, and depression. I am eager to participate in your personal transformation at the pace that feels right for you. I am continuously working to be a white ally to BIPOC as an on-going process in awareness. I have in person availability and if you prefer meeting remote, I am able to provide HIPAA compliant and confidential teletherapy.
(646) 791-3071 View (646) 791-3071
Photo of Jennifer Schultz, LCSW, Clinical Social Work/Therapist
Jennifer Schultz
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW
Verified Verified
New York, NY 10040  (Online Only)
Thank you for stopping by! I specialize in working with adults in different phases of life as well as couple's counseling. I work best with people who are seeking relief from: • Anxiety • Relationship Issues • Bereavement and Loss • Depression •Obsessive Compulsive Disorder • ADD and ADHD I also work with individuals to improve their self-esteem and self-worth . Check out my website at Schultzpractice.com
Thank you for stopping by! I specialize in working with adults in different phases of life as well as couple's counseling. I work best with people who are seeking relief from: • Anxiety • Relationship Issues • Bereavement and Loss • Depression •Obsessive Compulsive Disorder • ADD and ADHD I also work with individuals to improve their self-esteem and self-worth . Check out my website at Schultzpractice.com
(914) 353-3097 View (914) 353-3097
Photo of Carlota Zitreen, MA, LP, NCPsyA, Licensed Psychoanalyst
Carlota Zitreen
Licensed Psychoanalyst, MA, LP, NCPsyA
Verified Verified
1 Endorsed
New York, NY 10025  (Online Only)
A large percentage of clients find themselves in chaotic or repetitive situations. They search for an understanding of the origin of their dysfunction and want to move forward in their lives. Therein lies the mystery that we work to solve together. Often, clients desire to know and understand themselves and work with self-esteem issues. Self-esteem often lies at the root of many problems such as relationships, career goals, and social needs. Further, many have a trauma history and would like to work on how that trauma affects their present lives.
A large percentage of clients find themselves in chaotic or repetitive situations. They search for an understanding of the origin of their dysfunction and want to move forward in their lives. Therein lies the mystery that we work to solve together. Often, clients desire to know and understand themselves and work with self-esteem issues. Self-esteem often lies at the root of many problems such as relationships, career goals, and social needs. Further, many have a trauma history and would like to work on how that trauma affects their present lives.
(646) 600-8057 View (646) 600-8057
Photo of Victoria De Paula, LMSW, Clinical Social Work/Therapist
Victoria De Paula
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LMSW
Verified Verified
3 Endorsed
New York, NY 10001
I am passionate about working with individuals & couples facing relationship issues, adjusting to life transitions, or healing from anxiety and depression. I am a certified Emotionally-Focused Therapist (EFT) and have a focus on helping people heal from attachment trauma. If you notice unhealthy patterns in your relationships, have difficulty regulating or expressing your emotions, or feel stuck, I would love to help you. Together, we will apply a lens of curiosity and compassion to help you identify and respond to the challenges you face. We'll work together to first understand how and why you feel, think, and behave as you do.
I am passionate about working with individuals & couples facing relationship issues, adjusting to life transitions, or healing from anxiety and depression. I am a certified Emotionally-Focused Therapist (EFT) and have a focus on helping people heal from attachment trauma. If you notice unhealthy patterns in your relationships, have difficulty regulating or expressing your emotions, or feel stuck, I would love to help you. Together, we will apply a lens of curiosity and compassion to help you identify and respond to the challenges you face. We'll work together to first understand how and why you feel, think, and behave as you do.
(646) 798-1815 View (646) 798-1815
Photo of Olivia Giacomazzi, LCSW, Clinical Social Work/Therapist
Olivia Giacomazzi
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW
Verified Verified
New York, NY 10007
I am a psychoanalytically-trained psychotherapist and work with individuals suffering from anxiety, depression, or a general feeling of dissatisfaction in life. The process is an actively engaged, collaborative one as we come to more deeply understand your unconscious needs and develop less restrictive, more expansive ways of getting them met.
I am a psychoanalytically-trained psychotherapist and work with individuals suffering from anxiety, depression, or a general feeling of dissatisfaction in life. The process is an actively engaged, collaborative one as we come to more deeply understand your unconscious needs and develop less restrictive, more expansive ways of getting them met.
(929) 416-3009 View (929) 416-3009
Photo of Marleni Maldonado - Marleni Maldonado, LCSW-R, LCSW-R, Clinical Social Work/Therapist
Marleni Maldonado, LCSW-R
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW-R
Verified Verified
3 Endorsed
New York, NY 10011
I understand that any of us at some point in life, experience overwhelming and unpleasant feelings, such as persistent sadness, anxiety, grief, anger, loneliness, or stress. These may be the result of trauma, problems in relationships, stress because of work or school, loss, major life changes, conflicts, or unconscious/conscious self-defeating beliefs. However, no matter what has happened to us, we all have an innate ability to grow, to process, and to change. That fact that you are in this platform looking for help is already a great first step towards your healing process. I would very much like to help.
I understand that any of us at some point in life, experience overwhelming and unpleasant feelings, such as persistent sadness, anxiety, grief, anger, loneliness, or stress. These may be the result of trauma, problems in relationships, stress because of work or school, loss, major life changes, conflicts, or unconscious/conscious self-defeating beliefs. However, no matter what has happened to us, we all have an innate ability to grow, to process, and to change. That fact that you are in this platform looking for help is already a great first step towards your healing process. I would very much like to help.
(332) 529-1463 View (332) 529-1463
Photo of Christopher Love, LMSW, Clinical Social Work/Therapist
Christopher Love
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LMSW
Verified Verified
1 Endorsed
New York, NY 10018
Chris Love (he/him) is a Licensed Master Social Worker having earned his degree from Stony Brook University School of Social Welfare. Chris has extensive experience working with adults, adolescents, couples and families. He utilizes an eclectic, client centered, collaborative approach applying a unique mix of evidenced base practices specifically formulated to meet each client’s particular needs. His expertise include treating clients with anxiety, depression, panic attacks, PTSD, complex trauma, self-esteem, anger management, addiction, eating disorders, grief, and interpersonal/relationship issues. Additionally, Chris has worked e
Chris Love (he/him) is a Licensed Master Social Worker having earned his degree from Stony Brook University School of Social Welfare. Chris has extensive experience working with adults, adolescents, couples and families. He utilizes an eclectic, client centered, collaborative approach applying a unique mix of evidenced base practices specifically formulated to meet each client’s particular needs. His expertise include treating clients with anxiety, depression, panic attacks, PTSD, complex trauma, self-esteem, anger management, addiction, eating disorders, grief, and interpersonal/relationship issues. Additionally, Chris has worked e
(646) 768-0993 View (646) 768-0993
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How does your Therapist compare?

Number of Therapists in New York, NY

3,000+

Average cost per session

$200

Therapists in New York, NY who prioritize treating:

94% Anxiety
89% Depression
84% Relationship Issues
78% Self Esteem
67% Trauma and PTSD
66% Stress
64% Life Transitions

Average years in practice

12 Years

Top 3 insurances accepted

81% Aetna
62% Cigna and Evernorth
59% UnitedHealthcare UHC | UBH

How Therapists in New York, NY see their clients

57% In Person and Online
43% Online Only

Gender breakdown

78% Female
21% Male
1% Non-Binary
FAQs - About Therapy and Counseling

How can I find a therapist in New York?

Search for nearby therapists or counselors by inputting your city, town, or suburb; or zip code; or a provider’s name into the search bar. From there, you can filter providers by the issues they treat, cost, insurance, gender, and other factors to find providers who are well-suited to your needs. To navigate between locations within the same country, enter a new city or zip code into the search bar.

Learn more about how to find a therapist

Is everyone in the Psychology Today Therapy Directory a licensed therapist?

The Psychology Today directory lists providers who offer legitimate mental health services to the public, including psychologists, psychiatrists, social workers, and counselors.

Many have been licensed by the country or state where they practice; providers whose license or primary credential has been verified by Psychology Today are signified by a “Verified” symbol. Some clinicians or organizations provide services for which their state or country does not offer licenses, such as pastoral counseling. They may be selectively included without the “Verified” seal.

What’s the difference between a psychologist, a therapist, and a counselor?

Therapists, psychologists, and counselors are all licensed mental health professionals. In the US, psychologists have earned a doctoral degree. The terms “therapist” and “counselor” are used somewhat interchangeably, but generally therapists offer longer-term, mental health care, while counselors offer shorter-term care that may focus on one domain, such as marriage, career, or academic challenges.

Clients should consider factors such as insurance coverage and their primary reason(s) for seeking therapy to determine the type of professional best suited to their needs. Someone struggling with mental health challenges such as depression or anxiety, for example, may wish to seek out a clinical psychologist or therapist, while someone navigating career obstacles or marital upheaval may benefit from seeing a counselor who can offer short-term, targeted support.

What type of therapy is right for me?

The type of therapy best suited to a particular individual depends on several factors, including their primary reason for seeking therapy, their preferred timeline (some therapy types last for a set number of sessions, while others are open-ended), and their personality and preferences—some may prefer a more structured approach. For many individuals, multiple types of therapy could provide a good fit.

How much does therapy cost?

The cost of therapy depends on a number of variables, including location and the therapist’s experience and training. On average, a therapy session in the United States could cost between $100 and $200 or more. If you have insurance, the expense of mental health care is typically lower, but it varies based on your insurance plan details and whether you choose an in-network or out-of-network mental healthcare provider.

What are more affordable or low cost therapy solutions?

Many therapists offer sliding scale payments, usually on a limited number of slots, which consists in an agreement between the therapist and a client to pay a reduced rate. Therapists who provide such arrangements often consider the client's income or ability to pay, but the extent of the discount is ultimately at the therapist's discretion. Furthermore, while group therapy may have different goals and benefits compared to individual therapy, it can be a more affordable solution to address certain types of issues.

Is online therapy cheaper than in-person therapy?

Many therapists charge the same amount for online therapy as they do for in-person therapy—though clients may still find this cost-effective if it cuts down on their transportation costs. Health insurance plans often offer equivalent coverage for online and in-person therapy; indeed, in many places, they are legally required to do so. Text-based or on-demand therapy apps may be cheaper than traditional one-on-one psychotherapy; however, the practice may be less effective and is not likely to be covered by insurance.

Is online therapy a good option?

Therapy conducted online can be just as effective as in-person therapy, as long as there is a strong alliance between the client and the therapist. To find a therapist who provides telehealth services to clients in your area, click “Online Therapy” on the directory homepage and search by your city or town or your zip code.

Are therapy sessions confidential?

Confidentiality is a crucial part of the therapeutic relationship. Therapists in the United States are bound by the regulations set out by the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA), which aims to protect sensitive health information. With very few exceptions, a therapist will only discuss their client with others when the client has given their written permission. The instances in which a therapist would be required to disclose personal information are: if a client poses a danger to themselves or others, if the therapist suspects the abuse of a child or an elderly or otherwise dependent adult, or if they are legally forced to by court order. These exceptions to the confidentiality agreement are usually discussed with a client before their first session.