Chronic Pain Therapists in Virginia

Photo of Dr. Laurel Wade, PhD, Psychologist
Dr. Laurel Wade
Psychologist, PhD
Verified Verified
1 Endorsed
Arlington, VA 22203
Dr. Wade specializes in health psychology, particularly the areas of chronic pain, adjustment to chronic illness or injury, weight management, weight loss surgery counseling, disordered eating, body image concerns, and implementing health-promoting lifestyle changes. Dr. Wade practices Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), and positive psychology approaches, capitalizing on the strengths of each individual to form a collaborative and holistic treatment plan.
Dr. Wade specializes in health psychology, particularly the areas of chronic pain, adjustment to chronic illness or injury, weight management, weight loss surgery counseling, disordered eating, body image concerns, and implementing health-promoting lifestyle changes. Dr. Wade practices Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), and positive psychology approaches, capitalizing on the strengths of each individual to form a collaborative and holistic treatment plan.
(571) 462-6539 View (571) 462-6539
Photo of Ali Navidi, PsyD, Psychologist
Ali Navidi
Psychologist, PsyD
Verified Verified
3 Endorsed
Burke, VA 22015
I have had the privilege to work with patients with many different challenges such as anxiety, depression, IBS and chronic pain.
Have you tried hard to change, but nothing seems to work? Are you frustrated, maybe even disillusioned? Are you capable of more, but don't know how to make it happen?
I have had the privilege to work with patients with many different challenges such as anxiety, depression, IBS and chronic pain.
Have you tried hard to change, but nothing seems to work? Are you frustrated, maybe even disillusioned? Are you capable of more, but don't know how to make it happen?
(240) 808-2409 View (240) 808-2409
Photo of Shawna Pfeiffer - Shawna Pfeiffer, Watershed Hypnotherapy, CMS, CHT, FIBH
Shawna Pfeiffer, Watershed Hypnotherapy
CMS, CHT, FIBH
Verified Verified
1 Endorsed
Richmond, VA 23225
Waitlist for new clients
As a Clinical Medical Support Hypnotherapist, I guide my clients to tap into their own internal resources and make the important and lasting changes they want to see in their lives. I help them to find freedom from physical pain and discomfort, sleep disturbance, chronic stress and anxiety, excessive worry, fears and phobias, as well as unwanted emotions, habits and behaviors. My goal is to provide guidance, education and coaching to restore optimal physical health and emotional well being.
As a Clinical Medical Support Hypnotherapist, I guide my clients to tap into their own internal resources and make the important and lasting changes they want to see in their lives. I help them to find freedom from physical pain and discomfort, sleep disturbance, chronic stress and anxiety, excessive worry, fears and phobias, as well as unwanted emotions, habits and behaviors. My goal is to provide guidance, education and coaching to restore optimal physical health and emotional well being.
(804) 480-2482 View (804) 480-2482
Photo of Jeremy T Walden - Dougan and Walden Wellness, PLLC, PsyD, LCP, Psychologist
Dougan and Walden Wellness, PLLC
Psychologist, PsyD, LCP
Verified Verified
1 Endorsed
Midlothian, VA 23114
Are you feeling stressed, depressed, or in pain? We all have our own challenges to overcome. I am passionate about helping each individual who walks into my office. I work with individuals and couples with mood, anxiety, or trauma symptoms. I believe a collaborative approach provides a safe space, which allows you to express thoughts and feelings , allows us to work on goals, and provides the opportunity to explore deeper aspects of life. We will approach your path to change with an empathetic, positive approach. We will work together to develop an approach to address your goals.
Are you feeling stressed, depressed, or in pain? We all have our own challenges to overcome. I am passionate about helping each individual who walks into my office. I work with individuals and couples with mood, anxiety, or trauma symptoms. I believe a collaborative approach provides a safe space, which allows you to express thoughts and feelings , allows us to work on goals, and provides the opportunity to explore deeper aspects of life. We will approach your path to change with an empathetic, positive approach. We will work together to develop an approach to address your goals.
(804) 409-3664 View (804) 409-3664
Photo of Raymond A. Bradni, PhD, Psychologist
Raymond A. Bradni
Psychologist, PhD
Verified Verified
Fairfax, VA 22033
, Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), functional nausea, functional abdominal pain, chronic pain, migraine, trauma-related weight gain, sleep-wake cycle dysregulation, etc.
Mind-body (psychosomatic) dysregulation is challenging and complex and primarily associated with difficult emotions (e.g., anxiety, panic, depression, anger, guilt, etc.), relational difficulties (e.g., social isolation), and self-esteem concerns. Through rigorous clinical observation, I designed Analytical Health Psychotherapy (AHP), an insight-oriented approach to Health Psychology in which the therapeutic relationship will contain complex emotions while we analyze, tolerate, and understand the unconscious roots of the physical symptoms. Hence, the physical symptoms will diminish while you gain insight into their functions.
, Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), functional nausea, functional abdominal pain, chronic pain, migraine, trauma-related weight gain, sleep-wake cycle dysregulation, etc.
Mind-body (psychosomatic) dysregulation is challenging and complex and primarily associated with difficult emotions (e.g., anxiety, panic, depression, anger, guilt, etc.), relational difficulties (e.g., social isolation), and self-esteem concerns. Through rigorous clinical observation, I designed Analytical Health Psychotherapy (AHP), an insight-oriented approach to Health Psychology in which the therapeutic relationship will contain complex emotions while we analyze, tolerate, and understand the unconscious roots of the physical symptoms. Hence, the physical symptoms will diminish while you gain insight into their functions.
(571) 470-6791 View (571) 470-6791
Photo of David Richard Fly, PhD, Psychologist
David Richard Fly
Psychologist, PhD
Verified Verified
3 Endorsed
Newport News, VA 23606
Waitlist for new clients
I am a licensed clinical psychologist with extensive background in both psychotherapy and assessment. Many of the clients I have worked with in psychotherapy come from backgrounds of abuse and trauma, depression and anxiety, relationship breakdowns, or adjustment difficulties to life transitions. Additionally, I work with persons with chronic pain and other major medical issues impacting their mental health.
I am a licensed clinical psychologist with extensive background in both psychotherapy and assessment. Many of the clients I have worked with in psychotherapy come from backgrounds of abuse and trauma, depression and anxiety, relationship breakdowns, or adjustment difficulties to life transitions. Additionally, I work with persons with chronic pain and other major medical issues impacting their mental health.
(757) 913-5218 View (757) 913-5218
Photo of Amy Heard-Davison, PhD, Psychologist
Amy Heard-Davison
Psychologist, PhD
Verified Verified
Vienna, VA 22182
Waitlist for new clients
I believe that everyone has the ability to heal, learn, and thrive in the face of life's inevitable challenges. I provide individualized, compassionate care using techniques that are skills- focused and evidence-based. In my practice, these approaches have proven helpful for people struggling with medical issues such as neurological disorders, chronic pain, or fatigue and other symptoms related to physical imbalances. Many of my clients are also facing relationship challenges, anxiety, depression, a major life transition, or a recent loss. I help individuals and couples to create more vital, balanced, and meaningful lives.
I believe that everyone has the ability to heal, learn, and thrive in the face of life's inevitable challenges. I provide individualized, compassionate care using techniques that are skills- focused and evidence-based. In my practice, these approaches have proven helpful for people struggling with medical issues such as neurological disorders, chronic pain, or fatigue and other symptoms related to physical imbalances. Many of my clients are also facing relationship challenges, anxiety, depression, a major life transition, or a recent loss. I help individuals and couples to create more vital, balanced, and meaningful lives.
(703) 997-1417 View (703) 997-1417
Photo of Brittany Montes, PsyD, Psychologist
Brittany Montes
Psychologist, PsyD
Verified Verified
Chesapeake, VA 23320
I am a licensed psychologist specializing in the treatment of anxiety, depression, trauma, and physical pain.
My goal is to meet people exactly where they are and walk with them, at their pace, on their healing journey.
I am a licensed psychologist specializing in the treatment of anxiety, depression, trauma, and physical pain.
My goal is to meet people exactly where they are and walk with them, at their pace, on their healing journey.
(757) 337-4766 View (757) 337-4766
Photo of Amanda Cary, PsyD, Psychologist
Amanda Cary
Psychologist, PsyD
Verified Verified
Norfolk, VA 23502  (Online Only)
You are welcome here. I am a licensed clinical health psychologist with focus on chronic/terminal illness and pain. I offer an encouraging and supportive environment as someone who is there with you through the thick of it. The psychotherapy that I deliver is driven by evidence-based practices and empirically supported interventions. My theoretical orientation is cognitive behavioral, coupled with motivational interviewing approaches, emotion-focused perspectives, strengths-based techniques, and acceptance and commitment (ACT) strategies.
You are welcome here. I am a licensed clinical health psychologist with focus on chronic/terminal illness and pain. I offer an encouraging and supportive environment as someone who is there with you through the thick of it. The psychotherapy that I deliver is driven by evidence-based practices and empirically supported interventions. My theoretical orientation is cognitive behavioral, coupled with motivational interviewing approaches, emotion-focused perspectives, strengths-based techniques, and acceptance and commitment (ACT) strategies.
(757) 767-4949 View (757) 767-4949
Photo of Marie P Norton, MEd, LPC Res, NCC, Licensed Professional Counselor
Marie P Norton
Licensed Professional Counselor, MEd, LPC Res, NCC
Verified Verified
4 Endorsed
Richmond, VA 23221
You may identify with anxiety, trauma, depression, chronic pain, weight management, relationship , performance & athletic anxiety.
Stuck? Frustrated or overwhelmed? You want to do better at work or school. Maybe relationships are strained. You know you’d like something to change. Everyone else seems to have their life together. Come as you are to counseling. There is nothing you have to do, or be, in order to feel better. Together, we’ll discover what would be a rich and meaningful life for you, and how to get there. I work frequently with clients wanting to discover whole mind and body connection. During our initial consultation we'll discover if I'm the best fit for your needs, and if not, help you find the right one. Let's chat.
You may identify with anxiety, trauma, depression, chronic pain, weight management, relationship , performance & athletic anxiety.
Stuck? Frustrated or overwhelmed? You want to do better at work or school. Maybe relationships are strained. You know you’d like something to change. Everyone else seems to have their life together. Come as you are to counseling. There is nothing you have to do, or be, in order to feel better. Together, we’ll discover what would be a rich and meaningful life for you, and how to get there. I work frequently with clients wanting to discover whole mind and body connection. During our initial consultation we'll discover if I'm the best fit for your needs, and if not, help you find the right one. Let's chat.
(804) 259-0591 View (804) 259-0591
Photo of David Gofman, MA, LPC, Licensed Professional Counselor
David Gofman
Licensed Professional Counselor, MA, LPC
Verified Verified
2 Endorsed
Roanoke, VA 24011
I am a Licensed Professional Counselor, dual licensed in VA and CT. I specialize in working with teens and adults who are struggling with a variety of challenges, such as anxiety, depression, substance use, perfectionism, stress, chronic pain, and relationship issues. I am a certified Mindfulness-based Stress Reduction (MBSR) teacher, and offer evidence-based approaches to help you navigate your life circumstances more skillfully, and to be able to live your life on your terms.
I am a Licensed Professional Counselor, dual licensed in VA and CT. I specialize in working with teens and adults who are struggling with a variety of challenges, such as anxiety, depression, substance use, perfectionism, stress, chronic pain, and relationship issues. I am a certified Mindfulness-based Stress Reduction (MBSR) teacher, and offer evidence-based approaches to help you navigate your life circumstances more skillfully, and to be able to live your life on your terms.
(571) 520-8690 View (571) 520-8690
Photo of Lora D Baum, PhD, Psychologist
Lora D Baum
Psychologist, PhD
Verified Verified
Charlottesville, VA 22901  (Online Only)
Chronic illness or pain present unique challenges for individuals and families. Using cognitive behavioral therapy, learn to live a better and healthier life. I specialize in helping people with chronic medical conditions improve their physical and emotional functioning. Do you have chronic headaches, irritable bowel syndrome, chronic low back pain, or fibromyalgia? Each of these conditions can be alleviated by using psychological treatments. Having chronic pain is a stress in and of itself. I help you to make changes that can also improve sleep and mood.
Chronic illness or pain present unique challenges for individuals and families. Using cognitive behavioral therapy, learn to live a better and healthier life. I specialize in helping people with chronic medical conditions improve their physical and emotional functioning. Do you have chronic headaches, irritable bowel syndrome, chronic low back pain, or fibromyalgia? Each of these conditions can be alleviated by using psychological treatments. Having chronic pain is a stress in and of itself. I help you to make changes that can also improve sleep and mood.
(434) 336-3277 View (434) 336-3277
Photo of Henriette Kellum, LCSW, Clinical Social Work/Therapist
Henriette Kellum
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW
Verified Verified
Arlington, VA 22207
welcome. I hope that I can be helpful to you. I work with young adults, persons in mid life and older adults who need help with a variety of issues including challenging life events, transition and change, loss, grief, illness, depression, anxiety, caregiving and resource awareness. My goal is to make a positive difference in the lives of my clients who are struggling with life challenges. I do this by listening empathically, guiding my clients through personal exploration and providing support as they do so. I also provide resource information as appropriate.
welcome. I hope that I can be helpful to you. I work with young adults, persons in mid life and older adults who need help with a variety of issues including challenging life events, transition and change, loss, grief, illness, depression, anxiety, caregiving and resource awareness. My goal is to make a positive difference in the lives of my clients who are struggling with life challenges. I do this by listening empathically, guiding my clients through personal exploration and providing support as they do so. I also provide resource information as appropriate.
(703) 957-7735 View (703) 957-7735
Photo of Kellyn Lesch - Holistic Therapy-Pelvic Health- Psychedelic Integration, OTR/L, Occupational Therapist
Kellyn Lesch - Holistic Therapy-Pelvic Health- Psychedelic Integration
Occupational Therapist, OTR/L
Verified Verified
Newport News, VA 23606
I own Peninsula Pelvic Health and treat pelvic floor/core dysfunction, sexual trauma, chronic pain conditions, and provide sex therapy.
I am Kellyn Lesch, OTR/L. I believe that each client possesses an innate ability to heal, and I simply help them find they key to unlock this power within themselves. My intuition guides my interventions and I am able to see trauma, chronic pain, and mental health challenges at the source instead of where symptoms lie. I address the whole person; mind, body, and spirit. As an occupational therapist, holistic intervention has become part of my DNA and my sessions blend bodywork/manual therapy, trauma integration, mindfulness and spiritual practices, sensory processing, self-regulation, and nervous system modulation/management.
I own Peninsula Pelvic Health and treat pelvic floor/core dysfunction, sexual trauma, chronic pain conditions, and provide sex therapy.
I am Kellyn Lesch, OTR/L. I believe that each client possesses an innate ability to heal, and I simply help them find they key to unlock this power within themselves. My intuition guides my interventions and I am able to see trauma, chronic pain, and mental health challenges at the source instead of where symptoms lie. I address the whole person; mind, body, and spirit. As an occupational therapist, holistic intervention has become part of my DNA and my sessions blend bodywork/manual therapy, trauma integration, mindfulness and spiritual practices, sensory processing, self-regulation, and nervous system modulation/management.
(757) 891-5397 View (757) 891-5397
Photo of Amy Mulkey, PhD, LCP, Psychologist
Amy Mulkey
Psychologist, PhD, LCP
Verified Verified
1 Endorsed
Midlothian, VA 23112
Dr. Mulkey has been in practice for over 20 years and has a problem-focused approach to therapy. Specifically, she encourages her clients to use behavioral changes and cognitive strategies to start the healing process quickly and to begin to use more effective coping to deal with stress and issues they confront. These issues might include depression, insomnia, bipolar disorder, anxiety, panic attacks, headaches, stress management, pain, marital and relationship problems, and grief reactions. Dr. Mulkey competed her doctorate at University of Florida, an internship at University of North Carolina, and a postdoctoral fellowship in behavioral medicine at Duke University.
Dr. Mulkey has been in practice for over 20 years and has a problem-focused approach to therapy. Specifically, she encourages her clients to use behavioral changes and cognitive strategies to start the healing process quickly and to begin to use more effective coping to deal with stress and issues they confront. These issues might include depression, insomnia, bipolar disorder, anxiety, panic attacks, headaches, stress management, pain, marital and relationship problems, and grief reactions. Dr. Mulkey competed her doctorate at University of Florida, an internship at University of North Carolina, and a postdoctoral fellowship in behavioral medicine at Duke University.
(804) 977-9967 View (804) 977-9967
Photo of Dr. Sonya R Anthony - Life After The Storm, DSW, LCSW, CCM, Clinical Social Work/Therapist
Life After The Storm
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, DSW, LCSW, CCM
Verified Verified
Hampton, VA 23661  (Online Only)
Life After The Storm, is an outpatient integrated behavioral health practice, where service delivery takes place virtually via telehealth. At Life After The Storm, the provider recognizes the life of individuals as a marathon where one may incur traumatic experiences that can be driven by medical illnesses, and other related social determining factors. Specialization in Health and Behavior Assessment and Intervention (HBAI) services to identify and address the cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and social factors that are important to effective treatment or management of physical health problems that are unrelated to mental illness.
Life After The Storm, is an outpatient integrated behavioral health practice, where service delivery takes place virtually via telehealth. At Life After The Storm, the provider recognizes the life of individuals as a marathon where one may incur traumatic experiences that can be driven by medical illnesses, and other related social determining factors. Specialization in Health and Behavior Assessment and Intervention (HBAI) services to identify and address the cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and social factors that are important to effective treatment or management of physical health problems that are unrelated to mental illness.
(757) 524-1992 View (757) 524-1992
Photo of Susan Mitchell, LCSW, MSW, Clinical Social Work/Therapist
Susan Mitchell
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW, MSW
Verified Verified
1 Endorsed
Blacksburg, VA 24063  (Online Only)
My focus is helping clients develop the resiliency, confidence and coping tools to tackle those stressors, pain and adversity.
Life is hard! With so much is beyond our control, just trying to survive can be exhausting. If you are struggling mentally and emotionally, feel overwhelmed or alone, please know - you don’t have to continue feeling this way. With more than 25 years in practice, I've helped many clients navigate the way through their dark and emotionally difficult times. Through an interactive therapy style, I offer insight, supportive (yet honest) feedback, effective tools for coping, and HOPE for a brighter future. Together, we will share in the responsibility of getting you to a happier, more peaceful place in your life. The TRUTH is .....
My focus is helping clients develop the resiliency, confidence and coping tools to tackle those stressors, pain and adversity.
Life is hard! With so much is beyond our control, just trying to survive can be exhausting. If you are struggling mentally and emotionally, feel overwhelmed or alone, please know - you don’t have to continue feeling this way. With more than 25 years in practice, I've helped many clients navigate the way through their dark and emotionally difficult times. Through an interactive therapy style, I offer insight, supportive (yet honest) feedback, effective tools for coping, and HOPE for a brighter future. Together, we will share in the responsibility of getting you to a happier, more peaceful place in your life. The TRUTH is .....
(910) 601-9685 View (910) 601-9685
Photo of Lynessa Sheppard Plotnick, LPC, LMFT, Marriage & Family Therapist
Lynessa Sheppard Plotnick
Marriage & Family Therapist, LPC, LMFT
Verified Verified
More about specialties: I work with children 18 months and up; specialize in working with children and adult children of alcoholics, patients with chronic pain, patients experiencing depression and or anxiety, patients with ADHD, couples and whole families.
I believe in the human spirit and our capacity to make positive changes in all aspects of our lives, even in the face of adversity. By exploring our thought patterns, we can better identify feelings that affect our actions on a daily basis. We can then make effective changes that improve the quality of our lives, decreasing stress, anxiety, and depression and providing us with a more peaceful and joyful life. I also believe in the benefit of human interaction with other loving creatures; you will meet my little Yorkie-Poo therapy partner, Mojo, when you come to visit me. He loves children and adults.
More about specialties: I work with children 18 months and up; specialize in working with children and adult children of alcoholics, patients with chronic pain, patients experiencing depression and or anxiety, patients with ADHD, couples and whole families.
I believe in the human spirit and our capacity to make positive changes in all aspects of our lives, even in the face of adversity. By exploring our thought patterns, we can better identify feelings that affect our actions on a daily basis. We can then make effective changes that improve the quality of our lives, decreasing stress, anxiety, and depression and providing us with a more peaceful and joyful life. I also believe in the benefit of human interaction with other loving creatures; you will meet my little Yorkie-Poo therapy partner, Mojo, when you come to visit me. He loves children and adults.
(757) 785-0838 View (757) 785-0838
Photo of Natalie Chaykin Pierce, PsyD, Psychologist
Natalie Chaykin Pierce
Psychologist, PsyD
Verified Verified
1 Endorsed
Arlington, VA 22203
Dr. Natalie Pierce specializes in the treatment of chronic pain/illnesses, insomnia, OCD, anxiety disorders, eating disorders, body image concerns, life transitions, and depression. Dr. Pierce is board-certified in biofeedback and practices therapy primarily from CBT/ACT and positive psychology perspectives through a health psychology lens to help patients manage stress, transition after an injury or disease, and cope with pain, loss, feeling “stuck,” anxiety, and depression.
Dr. Natalie Pierce specializes in the treatment of chronic pain/illnesses, insomnia, OCD, anxiety disorders, eating disorders, body image concerns, life transitions, and depression. Dr. Pierce is board-certified in biofeedback and practices therapy primarily from CBT/ACT and positive psychology perspectives through a health psychology lens to help patients manage stress, transition after an injury or disease, and cope with pain, loss, feeling “stuck,” anxiety, and depression.
(703) 952-5233 View (703) 952-5233
Photo of Rachel Noble, MS, LPC, Licensed Professional Counselor
Rachel Noble
Licensed Professional Counselor, MS, LPC
Verified Verified
McLean, VA 22101
My writing and presentations on topics such as resilience, anxiety management, chronic pain, and intimacy appear in outlets such as The Washington Post, AARP, and Inova Health Systems.
Please find more info at my website: noblepractice.com. I have unique experience working with people who struggle with complex medical concerns, chronic pain, and postpartum depression. About half of my clients fall into this category and the other half are struggling with anxiety, depression, or just feeling stuck in life.
My writing and presentations on topics such as resilience, anxiety management, chronic pain, and intimacy appear in outlets such as The Washington Post, AARP, and Inova Health Systems.
Please find more info at my website: noblepractice.com. I have unique experience working with people who struggle with complex medical concerns, chronic pain, and postpartum depression. About half of my clients fall into this category and the other half are struggling with anxiety, depression, or just feeling stuck in life.
(202) 900-6633 View (202) 900-6633
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Chronic Pain Therapists

How does chronic pain therapy work?

Engaging with a psychotherapist to help treat chronic pain does not mean that one’s pain is all in their head. Therapy for chronic-pain patients has been shown to benefit both the mind and the body, targeting physical symptoms and increasing daily functioning. In other words, for many, addressing their emotional health through therapy affects their physical health. A therapist can help a client challenge unhelpful thoughts about pain and develop new ways to respond to it, such as distraction or calming breathing techniques. Studies have found that therapy can be as effective as surgery for certain cases of chronic pain and many doctors recommend trying psychotherapy in advance of considering invasive surgery.

What are the most effective treatment options for chronic pain?

Stress, anxiety, depression, catastrophizing, ruminating, lack of activity, and social withdrawal all make chronic pain worse. Addressing these issues, research shows, can help people gain control over their pain symptoms. Therapeutic approaches such as cognitive behavioral therapy, biofeedback, and mindfulness-based stress reduction, along with greater pain-management education, have been found to help people reduce fear and disability.

Are there new treatments for chronic pain?

Many cases of chronic pain, particularly those involving back pain, remain medically unexplained. But there is evidence that changes in the brain or nervous system are caused by previous physical ailments such as tissue damage; in such cases, the brain may continue to send out pain signals despite the physical cause having healed. To aid patients under these circumstances, a recently developed treatment known as pain reprocessing therapy (PRT) is designed to help the brain “unlearn” this response. A PRT practitioner helps individuals to reduce the “threat value” of their ongoing pain signals until they can reappraise them as less threatening and fear-inducing. They also help an individual to develop new emotional regulation skills.

How long does therapy for chronic pain take?

There is no set timeline for recovery from chronic pain, especially as there may be a range of physical and psychological causes for any individual’s discomfort, but most patients should expect to see a therapist for a number of weeks or months, typically spanning at least 12 sessions. Studies of pain reprocessing therapy found that many individuals’ experience of pain lessened in eight sessions over four weeks.