Humanistic Therapists in Escondido, CA

Photo of Katherine Leahy, PsyD, LMFT, Marriage & Family Therapist
Katherine Leahy
Marriage & Family Therapist, PsyD, LMFT
Verified Verified
Escondido, CA 92025  (Online Only)
I bring empathy, understanding, experience, and perspective to client issues in a humanistic approach which enables clients to see how they influence and are influenced by their relationships with family, friends, co-workers, community, and society.
I specialize in treating issues related to the various life cycle transitions of individuals and families, parenting and child behavioral issues, and families with mental illness by providing a systemic perspective that is non-judgmental and alerts clients to the possibility and potential of creating happier life experiences for themselves.
I bring empathy, understanding, experience, and perspective to client issues in a humanistic approach which enables clients to see how they influence and are influenced by their relationships with family, friends, co-workers, community, and society.
I specialize in treating issues related to the various life cycle transitions of individuals and families, parenting and child behavioral issues, and families with mental illness by providing a systemic perspective that is non-judgmental and alerts clients to the possibility and potential of creating happier life experiences for themselves.
(858) 223-1485 View (858) 223-1485
Photo of Kate Siner, PhD, MA, Counselor
Kate Siner
Counselor, PhD, MA
Verified Verified
3 Endorsed
Escondido, CA 92029
I am trained in numerous healing and helping methods including Core Energetics, ExpressiveArts, Shamanic Techniques, MER, Family Constellations, hypnosis, coaching, bodywork, energywork, and transpersonal and humanistic psychology.
We all benefit from a place where we can go to get wisdom, guidance, and support for our transformation, a place that nourishes and nurtures our soul and spirit. There are times in our lives when this becomes an imperative, when we are looking to breakthrough a major block or navigate an intensive period of transformation and want to dive deep beyond what we access in our everyday. Other times we are simply inspired by some inner calling to reach towards something more. Learning how to engage in this courageous work is the key to creating what we want and loving what we have. This is what I offer.
I am trained in numerous healing and helping methods including Core Energetics, ExpressiveArts, Shamanic Techniques, MER, Family Constellations, hypnosis, coaching, bodywork, energywork, and transpersonal and humanistic psychology.
We all benefit from a place where we can go to get wisdom, guidance, and support for our transformation, a place that nourishes and nurtures our soul and spirit. There are times in our lives when this becomes an imperative, when we are looking to breakthrough a major block or navigate an intensive period of transformation and want to dive deep beyond what we access in our everyday. Other times we are simply inspired by some inner calling to reach towards something more. Learning how to engage in this courageous work is the key to creating what we want and loving what we have. This is what I offer.
(858) 630-6942 View (858) 630-6942
Photo of Janelle Gervais, LMFT, Marriage & Family Therapist
Janelle Gervais
Marriage & Family Therapist, LMFT
Verified Verified
Escondido, CA 92026
Hi there! My name is Janelle Gervais and I am a Licensed Marriage and Family Therapist (LMFT) based in Sacramento, CA working with clients statewide via telehealth. I work with adults, adolescents, children, and family systems and specialize in treating trauma, addiction, depression/anxiety, family conflict, and parenting/behavior management from a humanistic person-centered approach.
Hi there! My name is Janelle Gervais and I am a Licensed Marriage and Family Therapist (LMFT) based in Sacramento, CA working with clients statewide via telehealth. I work with adults, adolescents, children, and family systems and specialize in treating trauma, addiction, depression/anxiety, family conflict, and parenting/behavior management from a humanistic person-centered approach.
(341) 999-4055 View (341) 999-4055
Photo of Michael Bjornson, LCP, Psychologist
Michael Bjornson
Psychologist, LCP
Verified Verified
Escondido, CA 92025
I strive to help people through caring, compassionate, non-judgmental and confidential services, emphasizing a positive psychology perspective, including CBT, ACT and humanistic approaches.
Hello, my name is Dr. Michael Bjornson. Most of my clients simply refer to me as Dr. "B". I have been a licensed clinical psychologist for over 26 years, with active licenses in California, Utah, and Wyoming. I am honored that you are considering me to help you in whatever life challenges have led you to seek help. Whether this may be your first-time seeking help or not, I recognize starting therapy is a big decision requiring courage and trust in another human being, to be there for you in a professional, caring capacity, to facilitate and guide you through important and difficult concerns.
I strive to help people through caring, compassionate, non-judgmental and confidential services, emphasizing a positive psychology perspective, including CBT, ACT and humanistic approaches.
Hello, my name is Dr. Michael Bjornson. Most of my clients simply refer to me as Dr. "B". I have been a licensed clinical psychologist for over 26 years, with active licenses in California, Utah, and Wyoming. I am honored that you are considering me to help you in whatever life challenges have led you to seek help. Whether this may be your first-time seeking help or not, I recognize starting therapy is a big decision requiring courage and trust in another human being, to be there for you in a professional, caring capacity, to facilitate and guide you through important and difficult concerns.
(424) 396-5080 View (424) 396-5080
David J Cain
Psychologist, PhD, ABPP, CGP
Verified Verified
Escondido, CA 92025
I AM A HUMANISTIC PSYCHOTHERAPIST WHO BELIEVES THAT PEOPLE ARE RESOURCEFUL & CAPABLE OF GROWTH.
I PREFER TO WORK WITH ADULTS AND COUPLES WHO ARE INVESTED IN LEARNING MORE ABOUT THEMSELVES AND THEIR RELATIONSHIPS AS A MEANS TO ADDRESS THE PROBLEMS THEY CURRENTLY EXPERIENCE. I VIEW PROBLEMS AS OPPORTUNITIES FOR GROWTH AND SEE MY ROLE AS HELPING YOU DRAW ON YOUR PERSONAL RESOURCES TO BECOME THE PERSON YOU WISH TO BE.I HAVE WORKED WITH ALL AGE GROUPS AND MOST ALL KINDS OF PROBLEMS IN CLINICAL, UNIVERSITY AND PRIVATE PRACTICE SETTINGS. PROFESSIONAL ACTIVITIES INCLUDE TEACHING AND SUPERVISING PSYCHOLOGY GRADUATE STUDENTS AND PROFESSIONAL THERAPISTS, WRITING, EDITING, PROFESSIONAL WORKSHOPS AND PRESENTATIONS AND SERVICE TO MY PROFESSION.
I AM A HUMANISTIC PSYCHOTHERAPIST WHO BELIEVES THAT PEOPLE ARE RESOURCEFUL & CAPABLE OF GROWTH.
I PREFER TO WORK WITH ADULTS AND COUPLES WHO ARE INVESTED IN LEARNING MORE ABOUT THEMSELVES AND THEIR RELATIONSHIPS AS A MEANS TO ADDRESS THE PROBLEMS THEY CURRENTLY EXPERIENCE. I VIEW PROBLEMS AS OPPORTUNITIES FOR GROWTH AND SEE MY ROLE AS HELPING YOU DRAW ON YOUR PERSONAL RESOURCES TO BECOME THE PERSON YOU WISH TO BE.I HAVE WORKED WITH ALL AGE GROUPS AND MOST ALL KINDS OF PROBLEMS IN CLINICAL, UNIVERSITY AND PRIVATE PRACTICE SETTINGS. PROFESSIONAL ACTIVITIES INCLUDE TEACHING AND SUPERVISING PSYCHOLOGY GRADUATE STUDENTS AND PROFESSIONAL THERAPISTS, WRITING, EDITING, PROFESSIONAL WORKSHOPS AND PRESENTATIONS AND SERVICE TO MY PROFESSION.
(760) 530-4786 View (760) 530-4786
Photo of Andra Coulter, LMFT, Marriage & Family Therapist
Andra Coulter
Marriage & Family Therapist, LMFT
Verified Verified
6 Endorsed
Escondido, CA 92025  (Online Only)
I have over 25 years of experience and offer a humanistic, integrative approach.
If you are looking for individual or family therapy for adolescents, adults and/or families you are in the right place! Therapy can mean venting your thoughts and feelings so that you actually are and feel heard. It could mean having an objective person to help you process your thoughts and feelings and/or while challenging that process at times to allow insight on how to see things another way. Furthermore, it could mean facilitating a plan to help you change a behavior, a relationship, yourself, situation or even your life.
I have over 25 years of experience and offer a humanistic, integrative approach.
If you are looking for individual or family therapy for adolescents, adults and/or families you are in the right place! Therapy can mean venting your thoughts and feelings so that you actually are and feel heard. It could mean having an objective person to help you process your thoughts and feelings and/or while challenging that process at times to allow insight on how to see things another way. Furthermore, it could mean facilitating a plan to help you change a behavior, a relationship, yourself, situation or even your life.
(858) 251-8293 View (858) 251-8293
Photo of Marylee (Mary) Sheppard, LCSW, Clinical Social Work/Therapist
Marylee (Mary) Sheppard
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW
Verified Verified
Escondido, CA 92026
My name is Mary Sheppard and I am a Licensed Clinical Social Worker. My overall approach to therapy is person centered, and I believe all individuals are unique and have their own personal values and ideals that can support self fulfillment. My therapeutic approach is heavily influenced by a humanistic theoretical framework. I also work in an integrated systems approach that is solution focused with a heavy emphasis on trauma, adverse childhood experiences, grief and loss and families with inter generational trauma.
My name is Mary Sheppard and I am a Licensed Clinical Social Worker. My overall approach to therapy is person centered, and I believe all individuals are unique and have their own personal values and ideals that can support self fulfillment. My therapeutic approach is heavily influenced by a humanistic theoretical framework. I also work in an integrated systems approach that is solution focused with a heavy emphasis on trauma, adverse childhood experiences, grief and loss and families with inter generational trauma.
(323) 406-7386 View (323) 406-7386
Photo of Leahmontaine Barrow, LCSW, Clinical Social Work/Therapist
Leahmontaine Barrow
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW
Verified Verified
Escondido, CA 92026
My name is Leahmontaine Barrow and I am a Licensed Clinical Social Worker. I try to meet each person where they are and collaborate with them as they work to meet and manage the impact various symptoms and issues have on their relationships, work, and lives. I take an eclectic approach when meeting with people. I try to meet each person where they are and provide the therapeutic approach that best addresses their needs. Some of the approaches I use are Humanistic, Strengths-based, CBT, CPT, Narrative, and Solution-focused therapy. In addition, I provide coping skills and self-care training.
My name is Leahmontaine Barrow and I am a Licensed Clinical Social Worker. I try to meet each person where they are and collaborate with them as they work to meet and manage the impact various symptoms and issues have on their relationships, work, and lives. I take an eclectic approach when meeting with people. I try to meet each person where they are and provide the therapeutic approach that best addresses their needs. Some of the approaches I use are Humanistic, Strengths-based, CBT, CPT, Narrative, and Solution-focused therapy. In addition, I provide coping skills and self-care training.
(562) 784-8593 View (562) 784-8593
Photo of Liliana Perez, LMFT, Marriage & Family Therapist
Liliana Perez
Marriage & Family Therapist, LMFT
Verified Verified
Escondido, CA 92025
Throughout therapy I utilize techniques used in Humanistic, Behavioral, Cognitive, and Mindfulness styles of therapy.
Hello, My name is Liliana Perez, and I am a Licensed Marriage and Family Therapist and a former teacher. I graduated from Pepperdine University, and completed my internship and training in South Central Los Angeles. Thereafter, I opened my own private practice and currently offer Telehealth therapeutic services. I am a solution focused therapist, with an eclectic style that draws from; Humanistic, Behavioral, Cognitive, and Spiritual schools of thought.
Throughout therapy I utilize techniques used in Humanistic, Behavioral, Cognitive, and Mindfulness styles of therapy.
Hello, My name is Liliana Perez, and I am a Licensed Marriage and Family Therapist and a former teacher. I graduated from Pepperdine University, and completed my internship and training in South Central Los Angeles. Thereafter, I opened my own private practice and currently offer Telehealth therapeutic services. I am a solution focused therapist, with an eclectic style that draws from; Humanistic, Behavioral, Cognitive, and Spiritual schools of thought.
(323) 948-8832 View (323) 948-8832
Photo of Bill Valdez Cifuentes, LMFT, Marriage & Family Therapist
Bill Valdez Cifuentes
Marriage & Family Therapist, LMFT
Verified Verified
Escondido, CA 92027
My approach to therapy combines Cognitive Behavioral, Humanistic/Person Centered counseling with a socially/culturally competent lens to help you not only recognize your strengths, but also utilize existing support systems, develop new coping skills, effectively respond to crises and empowering you to become more confident in handling day to day stressors.
Hello my name is Bill Valdez, and I am here to provide support with any depression and anxiety issues due to the stressors of everyday life, role transitions, relationship/family issues. I believe that we should all have the space to share our thoughts, and be able to process them to develop effective solutions. We will work together to identify goals and coping strategies needed to help you improve your thoughts, feelings and behaviors. I am here to provide you with coping strategies that will help you improve your mood while also giving you the space to develop personal growth.
My approach to therapy combines Cognitive Behavioral, Humanistic/Person Centered counseling with a socially/culturally competent lens to help you not only recognize your strengths, but also utilize existing support systems, develop new coping skills, effectively respond to crises and empowering you to become more confident in handling day to day stressors.
Hello my name is Bill Valdez, and I am here to provide support with any depression and anxiety issues due to the stressors of everyday life, role transitions, relationship/family issues. I believe that we should all have the space to share our thoughts, and be able to process them to develop effective solutions. We will work together to identify goals and coping strategies needed to help you improve your thoughts, feelings and behaviors. I am here to provide you with coping strategies that will help you improve your mood while also giving you the space to develop personal growth.
(909) 378-9185 View (909) 378-9185
Photo of Hilda Loza, LCSW, CBT, SEP, Clinical Social Work/Therapist
Hilda Loza
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW, CBT, SEP
Verified Verified
Escondido, CA 92025
I offer psychotherapy to individuals who are faced with a variety of concerns. My role is to provide a therapeutic presence through a safe environment to promote healthy self-expression which is important to beginning life’s mind and body journey. Being bilingual and culturally sensitive, I am aware of the personal, relational, and spiritual needs of the individual. I nurture strengths and am committed to facilitating personal growth, no matter how small the step is to get there.
I offer psychotherapy to individuals who are faced with a variety of concerns. My role is to provide a therapeutic presence through a safe environment to promote healthy self-expression which is important to beginning life’s mind and body journey. Being bilingual and culturally sensitive, I am aware of the personal, relational, and spiritual needs of the individual. I nurture strengths and am committed to facilitating personal growth, no matter how small the step is to get there.
(760) 546-9408 View (760) 546-9408
Photo of Linh Thai, LCSW, Clinical Social Work/Therapist
Linh Thai
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW
Verified Verified
Escondido, CA 92026
I am a psychotherapist based in Orange County, California, and have been providing mental health support services in various settings since 2012. I am motivated and passionate to serve clients in further developing their personal journey of self-growth/self-discovery.
I am a psychotherapist based in Orange County, California, and have been providing mental health support services in various settings since 2012. I am motivated and passionate to serve clients in further developing their personal journey of self-growth/self-discovery.
(760) 338-2036 View (760) 338-2036
Photo of Jolie Gorchov, LCSW, Clinical Social Work/Therapist
Jolie Gorchov
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW
Verified Verified
Escondido, CA 92025
Jolie Gorchov is a Licensed Clinical Social Worker in Los Angeles and New York City who sees adults, young adults, elders, and couples. I work especially well with clients in transition, clients struggling with anxiety or depression, creative individuals, those struggling with navigating relationships or singledom, and people working in demanding entertainment, corporate, and non-profit jobs. I generally work within a psychodynamic structure, also known as talk therapy, which focuses on processing experiences and exploring early events and developmental stuff that can get in the way of functioning and growth today.
Jolie Gorchov is a Licensed Clinical Social Worker in Los Angeles and New York City who sees adults, young adults, elders, and couples. I work especially well with clients in transition, clients struggling with anxiety or depression, creative individuals, those struggling with navigating relationships or singledom, and people working in demanding entertainment, corporate, and non-profit jobs. I generally work within a psychodynamic structure, also known as talk therapy, which focuses on processing experiences and exploring early events and developmental stuff that can get in the way of functioning and growth today.
(760) 330-2338 View (760) 330-2338
Photo of Cassandra Black, LCSW, Clinical Social Work/Therapist
Cassandra Black
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW
Verified Verified
Escondido, CA 92026
Hello, my name is Cassandra Black and I am a Licensed Clinical Social Worker. I provide a warm, empathic, and sensitive approach for those suffering from trauma, depression, anxiety, and PTSD. I welcome holding space for anyone ready for their healing journey. Look forward to working with you. My focus is working with adults ages 18-75. I provide a safe, warm, nurturing tone to all my clients. Clients experience a safe containment that allows them to open up and express their innermost feelings and struggles.
Hello, my name is Cassandra Black and I am a Licensed Clinical Social Worker. I provide a warm, empathic, and sensitive approach for those suffering from trauma, depression, anxiety, and PTSD. I welcome holding space for anyone ready for their healing journey. Look forward to working with you. My focus is working with adults ages 18-75. I provide a safe, warm, nurturing tone to all my clients. Clients experience a safe containment that allows them to open up and express their innermost feelings and struggles.
(760) 624-3105 View (760) 624-3105
Photo of Carmen Siordia, LMFT, Marriage & Family Therapist
Carmen Siordia
Marriage & Family Therapist, LMFT
Verified Verified
Escondido, CA 92025
Hello, My name is Carmen Siordia. I am a Licensed Marriage and Family Therapist who is based in Salinas, California. I see clients statewide via telehealth or in person at my office. I believe everyone has the potential to create the life they deserve. I am passionate about helping others work through their difficulties, gain a greater understanding of themselves and find meaning in their life experiences. In my work, I can help you learn practical and effective ways to manage the difficulties you are experiencing.
Hello, My name is Carmen Siordia. I am a Licensed Marriage and Family Therapist who is based in Salinas, California. I see clients statewide via telehealth or in person at my office. I believe everyone has the potential to create the life they deserve. I am passionate about helping others work through their difficulties, gain a greater understanding of themselves and find meaning in their life experiences. In my work, I can help you learn practical and effective ways to manage the difficulties you are experiencing.
(760) 548-3381 View (760) 548-3381
Photo of Andrea Conboy Therapybreathwork, LCSW, APHSW-C, Clinical Social Work/Therapist
Andrea Conboy Therapybreathwork
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW, APHSW-C
Verified Verified
1 Endorsed
Escondido, CA 92027  (Online Only)
Do you feel like you are sacrificing your own well-being as you help others? Have the demands of working as a helper, in a helping profession (during and post-pandemic), exceeded your resources of time and energy? Do you not only feel emotionally exhausted and burned out, but judged (by you or others) for it? Let me tell you: There is nothing wrong with you! You are having a natural response to the stress and exhaustion of being a helper!
Do you feel like you are sacrificing your own well-being as you help others? Have the demands of working as a helper, in a helping profession (during and post-pandemic), exceeded your resources of time and energy? Do you not only feel emotionally exhausted and burned out, but judged (by you or others) for it? Let me tell you: There is nothing wrong with you! You are having a natural response to the stress and exhaustion of being a helper!
(442) 232-4151 View (442) 232-4151
Photo of Tsueyhwa Pan, LCSW, Clinical Social Work/Therapist
Tsueyhwa Pan
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW
Verified Verified
Escondido, CA 92027
My name is Sarina Pan and I am a licensed clinical social worker in private practice in Los Angeles area. I work with adolescents and adults across all ages. I help people experience relief from shame, relationship struggles, anxiety, depression, and inner criticism through self-understanding, self-exploring, and self-compassion. Hearing people out and providing support and guidance to them to walk out from the life struggles is my true life passion.
My name is Sarina Pan and I am a licensed clinical social worker in private practice in Los Angeles area. I work with adolescents and adults across all ages. I help people experience relief from shame, relationship struggles, anxiety, depression, and inner criticism through self-understanding, self-exploring, and self-compassion. Hearing people out and providing support and guidance to them to walk out from the life struggles is my true life passion.
(442) 269-6826 View (442) 269-6826
Photo of Andrea Bayon, LCSW, Clinical Social Work/Therapist
Andrea Bayon
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW
Verified Verified
Escondido, CA 92026
Andrea Bayón (she/her/ella) is an LCSW and practices holistically within the framework of body, mind & spirit. Starting first with gentle nervous system soothing, Andrea works somatically (body-based) to help individuals reconnect with their internal experience. Andrea strives to offer an inclusive space, centering & honoring the experience of those who identify as BIPOC, Latinx, LGBTQIA+, 2S, as well as those embodying other historically marginalized identities.
Andrea Bayón (she/her/ella) is an LCSW and practices holistically within the framework of body, mind & spirit. Starting first with gentle nervous system soothing, Andrea works somatically (body-based) to help individuals reconnect with their internal experience. Andrea strives to offer an inclusive space, centering & honoring the experience of those who identify as BIPOC, Latinx, LGBTQIA+, 2S, as well as those embodying other historically marginalized identities.
(760) 642-1201 View (760) 642-1201
Photo of Anitalyn Sinclair, LCSW, BCC, Clinical Social Work/Therapist
Anitalyn Sinclair
Clinical Social Work/Therapist, LCSW, BCC
Verified Verified
Escondido, CA 92026
Hi, I’m Anitalyn (like Anita and Lyn put together into one word). I’m so glad you stopped by! I specialize in helping people cope with major life stressors, and even minor life stressors. Adjustment on any level can be really hard. I’m also deeply familiar with the polyamory community and the kink community, very familiar with the swingers' community and similar alternative lifestyle communities, and I’m an ally to the LGBTQIA+ community. I believe this world would be a better place if everyone could let go of judgment.
Hi, I’m Anitalyn (like Anita and Lyn put together into one word). I’m so glad you stopped by! I specialize in helping people cope with major life stressors, and even minor life stressors. Adjustment on any level can be really hard. I’m also deeply familiar with the polyamory community and the kink community, very familiar with the swingers' community and similar alternative lifestyle communities, and I’m an ally to the LGBTQIA+ community. I believe this world would be a better place if everyone could let go of judgment.
(760) 273-3204 View (760) 273-3204
Photo of Monika - Grace, PhD, MDiv, ThM, MA, Psychologist
Monika - Grace
Psychologist, PhD, MDiv, ThM, MA
Verified Verified
Escondido, CA 92025
I am Rev. Dr. Monika Maria Grace and I welcome you to my page! In our first session together, I also welcome you to my real or virtual office and I invite you to make it your own safe space. I explain that therapy is a process, a relationship, and an adventure. It's also a gift of discovery and renewal that only you can give to yourself, especially in our challenging days. In this process, my role is to listen, to support, to challenge, to guide, and to celebrate you as you are becoming more courageous to face the parts of yourself you were avoiding, more accepting of yourself and of others, and fully present in your life.
I am Rev. Dr. Monika Maria Grace and I welcome you to my page! In our first session together, I also welcome you to my real or virtual office and I invite you to make it your own safe space. I explain that therapy is a process, a relationship, and an adventure. It's also a gift of discovery and renewal that only you can give to yourself, especially in our challenging days. In this process, my role is to listen, to support, to challenge, to guide, and to celebrate you as you are becoming more courageous to face the parts of yourself you were avoiding, more accepting of yourself and of others, and fully present in your life.
(619) 430-4996 View (619) 430-4996
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Humanistic Therapists

How does humanistic therapy work?

One tenet of humanistic therapy is that people are good. The humanistic approach is concerned with a person’s ability to accept oneself. It likewise encourages a person to overcome self-criticism and self-defeating tendencies, as well as disapproval from others. This approach also emphasizes self-actualization and treating an individual as a whole person. A foundation of this therapy type: The patient is the expert in their life, and treatment often takes the individual’s lead.

Is humanistic therapy evidence-based?

Humanistic therapy is an evidence-based practice. Research has found that humanistic therapy can lead to significant improvement, and for some people it can be just as effective as other therapies, such as Cognitive behavioral therapy. The benefits of humanistic therapy are enduring.

How long does humanistic therapy last?

The goal of humanistic therapy is to understand a person’s day-to-day experiences. While sessions can be short-term and last over a few months, therapy can sometimes continue beyond that and last up to a year or more. And because patients learn the theory behind humanistic therapy during treatment, they can also practice its tenets throughout life after therapy sessions have been completed.

Is humanistic therapy effective?

According to research, many patients find success with humanistic therapy. Researchers note that the therapy is particularly useful in addressing poor self-esteem and self-sabotage, as well as improving conditions including anxiety and depression. Improvements in problem areas can be long standing, as individuals can continue working on themselves by using the tools they’ve learned during treatment.